The study of Middle Eastern women has increased so rapidly in the past decades. The overviews of the topic are needed to introduce about what is known and what is the knowledge is based on the eastern women. There have been a variety of variations in women`s roles such as class, religion, period, ethnicity as for the features of women status, they are often attributed to some variations like Islam, education so women`s roles and status in education and work have expanded in many ways. In this essay, I will try to meet some of the features of Middle Eastern women by giving interpretations that take into account many features of the modern world. Also, I would like to elucidate the current state of writing on these women and to explain what has been accomplished in this field. In despite of most of the existing studies and surveys on the subject which are dealt with limited subjects, I would like to improve more on the subject. For instance, I will try to elucidate women`s strategies in the rise of fundamentalism in the Muslim World, the rise of Islam in the middle eastern societies and influence of women and gender relations, in addition, women`s activism and the rise of Islamism.
There is scarce information or documentation, until the fourteenth century, relevant to women from pre-Islamic terms. However, In the Middle East, the history of women has been studied for only approximately two decades. Even the extant documentation were written by views of elite men overwhelmingly before the third Islamic century, rather than direct substance about women such how women live and think of something.[1] Regarding the interpretation of the documentation, Believing Muslims have an approach to the Qur`an and the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad ( peace be upon him), known as traditions ( hadiths ). However, since the nineteenth century, modernizing Muslims had distinguished some fallibilities between the Qur`an and some traditions which said hostel for women also they were attributed to first Shi`i Imam, Ali. In addition these, this interpretations of the Qur`an have led to point out both Muslims and non-Muslims and the modern interpretation of the Qur`an were patriarchal considerably more than literal Qur`an text that is not contained the misogyny of the traditions ( hadiths ).[2] Moreover, Muslims who believe in equality of gender interpret the Qur`an by supporting equality despite male supremacist of some people because often to emphasize gender was dominant and still was among many conservative Muslims. Today the gender egalitarian programs and laws are accepted in the Muslim communities as an important mean along with not egalitarian views toward women. However, the negative sides of gender relations are exaggerated by some western scholars in the Muslim world[3].
The Islam occurred in the early seventh century and earliest writings regarding the position of women and attitudes of them were in the ninth century so these resources not only reflect the faults of the memory of society, but also society`s rapid change including a position of women. Moreover, in the later beliefs, the reading problem into earlier cases affects cultural practices because of this we should interpret women`s status and rules in the entire Middle East in light of cultural and socioeconomic case after the rise of Islam. In addition to these, there is a relative wealth of legal documents at the beginning about the fourteenth century especially with the Mamluks in Egypt and extensive Ottoman Empire and in these two empires, the sexual and social lives of women were freer than a literal reading of Islamic jurisprudence and writings and this is an important point regarding women.[4] After Islamic conquest, the roles of women in the Middle East modified to meet the circumstances of new Islamic states which reflect a variety of local ideas and circumstances after the seventh century.[5]
The roles of women, especially elite women, in the Middle East were to wear various forms of veiling and seclusion in the pre Islamic Middle East and men had proprietary rights over women and exclusive divorce rights even the specified rules on veiling[6] since the high-status women had to use veil but for other harlots and slaves women were forbidden because of their class and division even the large harems were found in various ancients Near Eastern Empires such as female slaves, concubines, and eunuchs. In the pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires urban dwellers and nomads tended to be concerned about genealogical and family control over women`s sexuality for marriage. For instance, the marriage were one component of extended families, patriarchal, which men were more important than the marital relationship also there was less conflict between people as male control was strong on the female. On the other hand, there is a stress on female virginity in the Middle East and the northern Mediterranean as a center of male honor. Also, male honor not only included strength and hospitality, but also dominance on women and control their sexuality and these continued during centuries. Honor killing which is done by males in the natal family is a tribal custom but we cannot find it in the Islam and Qur`an, jurisprudence, but there is a belief which honor of men depended on women`s chastity and some belief were found elsewhere in Asia[7]
According to many scholars, Jewish and Christian had acquainted in an area with the rise of Islam in the Arabian towns like Mecca and Medina and in the revelations of the Qur`an, the women`s rights often are divided into two groups firstly, one sizable group of revelations which deal with equally and are enjoined to act regarding morality and modesty identically for both men and women. Secondly, there are some rules such as separate and unequal though generally less unequal practices. However, some revelations like dower (mahr) reformed pre Islamic tribal customs because all grooms had to give the “mahr” to marriage also in the Qur`an, the God said; “give their dower to your women as a free gift”[8] also the male dower was seen as an indispensable payment. Some verses allow to men will have more than one wife, two, three or four, like an-Nisa surah third verse.[9] Nevertheless, the verses are commented by some interpreters and they say that polygamy was reformed by Qur`an on unlimited polygamy while some modern researchers say that there is a little evidence of unlimited polygamy.[10]
Some documents about women in the medieval Muslim societies were unearthed at the period of the first caliphate 661-749, Umayyads, but direct documents were drawn on reports from the period of the Abbasid caliphate 749-1258 that called the golden age of Islam in its early centuries but it was not a golden age for women or slaves. There are various forms of literature, biographical dictionaries and hadiths about women and some scholars were unearthing more material about them while the seclusion of women increased in the documentary record, Also women were excluded and secluded from the public life.[11]
At the time of the early Mecca and Medina Medieval Islamic society was more patriarchal but Islam did not begin as male supremacist of the Middle East religions by contrast with Jewish and Christian even Greek ideas since they have ideas of hostile to women. There is an influence on the inegalitarian status of women who came from conquered areas such as Sasanian and Byzantine empires. Dominant Islamic societies stressed to the inferior rationality of women and from their perspectives women were seen as evil threats to males and social order but modernists in recent centuries rejected these traditions and they want to reinterpret Qur`an in stark contrast we can see that some views of these genders still survive in the conservative views of the Traditions.[12]
The views of western on the Middle Eastern Muslim women were nuanced views and often emphasized condemnation of women. Also, hostility on the Muslims was based on threats at the time of the Muslim Middle East and Ottoman times. There was an attack through the polygamy, veiling, harems since Muhammed was supposed as sexual appetites but Muslim women were seeing as little more than slaves and Muslims were seen as intolerant in the perspective of Christians.
On the one hand, western women thought of that they had a higher position than Middle Eastern women regarding property ownership, legal cases and some possibility for divorce, and assumed that the sexual segregation was terrible oppression of women.[13] Sometimes westerns emphasized to Muslim societies which were based on ignorance of Muslim women. Muslims were praised and Western Christian practices were criticized by some women who knew turkey in the nineteenth century.[14] There are western negative stereotypes during the nineteenth century about the Muslim Middle East which is fallowing the Orientalism of Edward Said which inspires many useful studies.[15]
The negative attitudes toward the Middle Easterners were based on their religion but the changing position of women led to different roles as few girls attended modern schools even there was modern education at home with tutors and after this time women`s attitudes developed and were advocated scientific domesticity, home management even child rearing in Egypt and Istanbul. There were articles which are written to advocate, pros and cons, better condition for women even some women wanted to demand reforms in family law as well as education and work rights. There is stress about the seclusion of women as a justification by westerns, and by the late nineteenth century, women launched journals to advocate new women`s roles.[16]
The early decades of the period since 1950s women entered into a greater variety of industrial and professional jobs, in addition, the new spheres of employment were opened for women and the employment of women was partly based on economic reality. Moreover, conferences which may make women`s labor easier were influential in creating networks of activists like UN conference, Catholic Muslim alliance, and there were a variety of questions regarding women and sexuality developed in the conferences.[17] Western laws are found in the Middle Eastern laws such as abortion as illegal law but sexual harassment and marital rape were not punished and also maternity leave for women and equal pay and equal work were important steps. It is not doubted that local customs and family have more important significance than law since sometimes the customs are favorable to women with the existence of tribal population or groups which are more gender egalitarian. When patriarchal culture and after law which is done for women change, there were advances in women`s education and employment.[18] Because of no published women`s historical narratives, it is not easy to construct a narrative for Middle East women but there is an only basic question as the reform of Islamic Law and partial sources that cover the Middle East.[19] Moreover, I can see that there is increasing discussion regarding such problems as violence against women, extramarital sex, male and female sexuality even ignorance of many men and women regarding gender and sexuality in the memoirs and anthropological works[20] besides that in the 1960s the number of women and girls education increased and appointing to cabinet became easy, there was opening to the judiciary for women and there was an increase in the women`s literacy like male. In the 1970s we can see that after the huge demonstration of International Women`s Day enforced hijab was derailed, March 8, 1979, but women`s spheres declined with a gradual come back since 1990s especially in Iran in the Middle East. Although women in the Middle East had full political rights but women interested in politics less instead of this they trended to professions like medicine, law. On the other hand, some women gravitate more to politics like Tansu Ciller who became a woman prime minister in Turkey. The King of Saudi Arabia called for expanding the role of women in society in May 2003 and then there was a conference that included ten women for the first time, in addition, a special one day for women was devoted in Jiddah Economic Form[21] even the conference, Jiddah Economic Form, will be done soon, 15-16 April 2018, just one woman speaker will be there.[22]
Conclusion
As in many cultures, women`s status and rules were legally subordinate to men`s status in many spheres. Though men`s status and rules had more rights, women had fewer rights also it was treated like minors for women. The idea of sexual segregation increased so rapidly in the past decades and it based on a patriarchal compulsion to control women sexuality and it shows the absence of any positive features in women`s lives. Although early period documentations were scarce, once documents available about it is not doubted a large number of women suffered and many numbers still suffer. The development of local practices regarding women was influenced by political and socioeconomic situations after the developed of Islamic law. Also, there are greater freedoms for women than envisaged in Islamic law but we can see in the contemporary researches that poor women had fewer rights than elite women. Although various historical reasons violence against women and limited women rights rise because of that some men and women combated in modern times.
On the other hand, although some women had freedoms, they were subjected to various sanctions for unauthorized behavior such sexual behavior because of this national structures have limited the emergence of egalitarian societies as economic political and social. There was a connection between unpopular autocracies and the measures to improve women`s freedoms since all made the job of women working with liberal men who do not stress women`s rights. Today a lot of women`s socioeconomic role in many jobs is more independent and powerful than before but popular class women have not been beneficial since there are harder lives and fewer economic roles and possibilities than before.[23] Finally because of the increased awareness of women`s rights and the significant increase in female education will be given the reason for hope.
Bibliography;
1. Afshar, Haleh, Women in the Middle East Perceptions, Realities and Struggles for Liberation, 2001
2. Bayes, Jane, and Tohidi, Nayereh, Globalization, Gender and Religion; the Politics of Women`s Right in Catholic and Muslim Context, 2001.
3. İbn Ebi’l-Hadîd, el-Hüseyin, Abdülhamid Hibetullah b. Muhammed b. (656/1258), Şerhu Nehci’l Belâğa, 1404/1983
4. Joseph, Suad, Kandiyoti, Deniz, Gender and Citizenship in the Middle East, 2000.
5. Keddie, Nikki R., Women in the Middle East Past and Present, 2007.
6. Leila, Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam; Historical Roots of a Modern Debate, 1992.
7. Lockman, Zachary, Contending Visions of the Middle East; the History and Politics of Orientalism, 2004.
8. Melman, Billie, Women`s Orients; English Women and the Middle East, 1995.
9. Obermeyer, Carla Makhlouf, Family, Gender and Population in the Middle East Policies in Context, 1995.
1. Roded, Ruth, Women in Islamic Biographical Collections; from Ibn Sa`d to Who`s Who, 1994.
1. Rostam Kolayi, Jasmine, The Women`s Press, Modern Education and the State in Early Twentieth Century Iran 1900-1930s, 2000.
1. Shaaban, Bouthania, Both Right and Left Handed; Arab Women Talk about Their Lives, 1991.
1. Vieille, Paul, Iranian Women in Family Alliance and Sexual Politics in Women in the Muslim World, ed. Lois Beck and Nikki Keddie, 1990.
1. Walther, Wiebke, Women in Islam, 1981.
1. Ze`evi, Dror, Producing Desire; Changing Sexual Discourse in the Ottoman Middle East, 2006.
1. Zuhur, Sherifa, Gender, Sexuality and the Criminal Laws in the Middle East and North Africa; A Comparative Study, Women for Women`s Human Rights, Istanbul, 2005.
[1] Nikki R. Keddie, Women in the Middle East Past and Present, Princeton University Press Princeton and Oxford, 2007, p.9
[2] İbn Ebi’l-Hadîd, Abdülhamid Hibetullah b. Muhammed b. el-Hüseyin (656/1258), Şerhu Nehci’l Belâğa, 1404/1983, p.105-106.
[3] Nikki R. Keddie, Women in the Middle East Past and Present, p.10.
[4] Ahmed Leila, Women and Gender in Islam; Historical Roots of a Modern Debate, New Haven: Yale University Press,1992, p.83.
[5] Carla Makhlouf Obermeyer, Family, Gender and Population in the Middle East Policies in Context, The American University in Cairo Press, 1995, p.74.
[6] Veiling means to cover the hair and much of the body.
[7] Haleh Afshar, Women in the Middle East Perceptions, Realities and Struggles for Liberation, Palgrave Macmillan Press, 2001, p.117.
[9] Ve in hıftum ellâ tuksitû fîl yetâmâ fenkihû mâ tâbe lekum minen nisâi mesnâ ve sulâse ve rubâa, fe in hıftum ellâ ta’dilû fe vâhideten ev mâ meleket eymânukum. Zâlike ednâ ellâ teûlû,
“if you fear that you will not deal justly with the orphan girls, then marry that please you of other women, two or three or four. But if you fear that you will not be just, then marry only one or those your right hand possesses. That is more suitable that you may not incline”
[10] Wiebke Walther, Women in Islam, translated, C.S.V. Salt, Princeton; Markus Wiener, 1981, p.57.
[11] Ruth Roded, Women in Islamic Biographical Collections; from Ibn Sa`d to Who`s Who, Boulder, CO; Lynne Reinner, 1994, p.86.
[12] Nikki R. Keddie, Women in the Middle East Past and Present, p.31
[13] Dror Ze`evi, Producing Desire; Changing Sexual Discourse in the Ottoman Middle East,; University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles 2006, p.169 174.
[14] Billie Melman, Women`s Orients; English Women and the Middle East, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan press, 1995, p.106-7.
[15] Zachary Lockman, Contending Visions of the Middle East; the History and Politics of Orientalism, Cambridge University Press, 2004, chap. 6
[16] Jasmin Rostam Kolayi, The Women`s Press, Modern Education and the State in Early Twentieth Century Iran 1900-1930s, Ucla, 2000, p.189.
[17] Jane Bayes and Nayereh Tohidi, Globalization, Gender, and Religion; the Politics of Women`s Right in Catholic and Muslim Context, New York; Palgrave, 2001, p.8.
[18] Suad Joseph, Deniz Kandiyoti, Gender and Citizenship in the Middle East, Syracuse University Press, 2000, p.275.
[19] Sherifa zuhur, Gender, Sexuality and the Criminal Laws in the Middle East and North Africa; A Comparative Study, Women for Women`s Human Rights, new ways study, Istanbul, 2005, p.68.
[20] Paul Vieille, Iranian Women in Family Alliance and Sexual Politics in Women in the Muslim World, ed. Lois Beck and Nikki Keddie, MA; Harward University Press, Cambridge, 1990, p.189.
[21] Nikki R. Keddie, Women in the Middle East Past and Present, p.151.
[23] Bouthania Shaaban, Both Right and Left Handed; Arab Women Talk about Their Lives, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1991
